Theme Park, Amusement Park, Trampoline Park, Indoor Climbing and FEC HVAC Duct Guide — Movie World, Dreamworld, Luna Park, Sky Zone, Bounce, Timezone

Why theme park and amusement HVAC is the most varied sector in the field

Walk through Movie World on a hot January afternoon and you can stand within a hundred-metre radius of six wildly different HVAC environments. The outdoor queue line for Superman Escape needs essentially no mechanical ventilation. The indoor dark ride pre-show building immediately behind it runs glycol fog generators and theatrical lighting at 30 kW per scene, dumping particulate and ozone into a contained volume that must be cleared between cycles. The Hollywood Stunt Driver show arena is an open-air covered grandstand with limited HVAC scope. The Roxy Theatre indoor show building has cinema-grade displacement ventilation. The food court along Main Street has NFPA 96 commercial kitchen exhaust on a half-dozen separate hoods. And the air-conditioned merchandise stores at the park entry are conventional retail HVAC. One park, one HVAC scope, six fundamentally different design problems.

Now take that complexity and multiply it across the modern Australian leisure industry. The trampoline park sector — Sky Zone, Bounce, Flip Out — operates more than seventy sites nationally and represents one of the highest-metabolic-rate occupancies the AS 1668.2 framework was ever asked to handle. Indoor climbing operations — BlocHaus, 9Degrees, Latitude, Boulder Co., Climbing Edge — generate respirable magnesium carbonate chalk dust at concentrations measurable in milligrams per cubic metre. Family entertainment centres run by Funlab (Holey Moley, Strike Bowling, Archie Brothers), TEEG (Timezone), and the larger franchise networks combine arcade, mini-golf, bowling, bar service, kids soft play and concession food under one roof with one HVAC system. Indoor go-kart tracks split between modern electric facilities like Le Mans Karts Melbourne and older petrol operations that require workshop-grade exhaust capture. Indoor pool slide complexes and FlowRider wave installations sit somewhere between amusement and public aquatic centre. The Merlin Entertainments Australian portfolio — Sea Life Sydney, Sea Life Melbourne, WILD LIFE Sydney Zoo, Madame Tussauds Sydney and LEGOLAND Discovery Centre Melbourne — adds aquarium ozone treatment, animal-life-support HVAC, wax figure preservation and a contained dark-ride-style themed attraction to the mix.

The unifying problem across this sector is that the standard mechanical engineering design references — ASHRAE Applications Chapter 4 places of assembly, AS 1668.2 mechanical ventilation, ASHRAE 62.1 ventilation rates — were written for sedentary or near-sedentary occupants in conventional building envelopes. Active-zone occupancy, themed attraction contaminant load and the specific overlays of AS 3533.1 to 3533.4 amusement rides and devices, AS 4426 dark ride and AS 4818 water rides all pull the design well outside the standard reference set. This guide is the engineering reference SBKJ uses to bridge that gap.

SBKJ Group machinery has been built into Australian and export theme park, FEC and indoor amusement projects since 1995, and the patterns described here are drawn from those projects. The Australian engineering office in Box Hill North VIC supports specification, fabrication coordination and post-installation engineering for clients across the Australia, New Zealand and Asia-Pacific region.

Venue typology — every amusement venue has a distinct HVAC fingerprint

Before any specification work begins, the venue type needs to be classified. The HVAC architecture, AS standards mix, contaminant capture strategy and even the duct material differ significantly across the amusement-and-entertainment spectrum.

Outdoor theme park (open-air with indoor pockets)

The classic Gold Coast model — Warner Bros. Movie World, Sea World, Wet'n'Wild Gold Coast, Paradise Country (all Village Roadshow ASX:VRL), and Dreamworld plus WhiteWater World (Ardent Leisure ASX:ALG). Open-air master plan with indoor pockets for dark rides, show buildings, restaurants and retail. HVAC scope is concentrated in those indoor pockets — there is no HVAC for the queue lines, the ride paths or the midway — but the indoor pockets themselves are HVAC-intensive. A typical Gold Coast major theme park has 40 to 80 separate air handlers serving food and beverage outlets, dark rides, indoor show buildings, retail stores, restrooms, animal exhibits, back-of-house workshops, ride storage and administration buildings. The duct package across the park is significant — typically 8 to 15 km of ductwork — and is dominated by the food and beverage and the dark ride elements.

Indoor theme park or themed pavilion

The Luna Park Melbourne and Luna Park Sydney indoor zones, LEGOLAND Discovery Centre Melbourne, the indoor sections of Movie World and Dreamworld, and indoor-only attractions such as the immersive themed experiences inside major shopping centres. Indoor theme parks combine the show-building density of an outdoor park's dark ride zone with the assembly-occupancy ventilation requirements of a full Class 9b building. Outdoor air rates are sized for assembly occupancy peak loading; dark ride contaminant capture overlays add scene-level exhaust; food and beverage adds NFPA 96 kitchen exhaust; the queueing and circulation spaces add atrium smoke management. Indoor theme parks are HVAC-intensive — typically 200 to 400 W per square metre of installed HVAC plant capacity versus 80 to 150 W per square metre for retail.

Dark ride attraction

Disney World style themed dark rides where a vehicle (boat, car, suspended track) carries patrons through a sequence of themed show scenes, with theatrical lighting, fog effects, animatronic characters and audio. Major Australian dark rides include Scooby-Doo Spooky Coaster at Movie World, the now-historic Eureka Mountain Mine Ride at Dreamworld, and the more recent immersive themed dark attractions in the Merlin Entertainments portfolio. Dark rides trigger the full AS 4426 dark ride specific compliance overlay plus AS 1668.2 outdoor air and AS 1668.1 smoke management. The contaminant load is dominated by glycol-based theatrical fog particulate plus low-level ozone from any corona-discharge fog generators or high-intensity stage lighting. HVAC architecture is dedicated zone exhaust at scene level, make-up at the ride path entry, ozone extract at every fog generator, and emergency smoke clearance mode for evacuation.

Water ride splash zone

Log flumes, river rapids rides, splash boat rides and tower drops with water-effect finales. Major Australian examples include Storm Coaster wet section and Wet'n'Wild Gold Coast indoor pavilions, the Buzzsaw splash pool at Dreamworld, the various rapids and flume rides at Movie World and the indoor sections of WhiteWater World. The splash zone HVAC envelope runs at 70 to 85 percent relative humidity with chloramine (NH2Cl) loading from chlorinated water. 316L stainless steel duct is the only practical specification inside the wet-air envelope; galvanised corrodes within 2 to 5 years and 304L pits within 5 to 10. Dehumidification of supply air to 50 to 60 percent RH per AS 4818 is mandatory.

Indoor pool slide complex

Indoor versions of Wet'n'Wild Gold Coast and WhiteWater World, plus indoor sections of public aquatic centres operating leisure slide complexes. The indoor pool slide complex is essentially a heated indoor pool with elevated slide structures, and the HVAC envelope is the same as a public aquatic centre — AS 4818 plus AS 1668.2 — with the added complexity of the elevated slide structures generating splash and air entrainment well above the water surface. 316L stainless duct, mechanical dehumidification, chloramine extraction at the water surface plus general exhaust at the upper slide level. See also our companion Public Aquatic Centre HVAC Duct Guide for the related architecture.

Trampoline park

The trampoline park sector emerged as a leisure category around 2010 and exploded in Australia over the decade following. Sky Zone (30-plus AU locations under franchise), Bounce Inc (25-plus AU sites with a Melbourne head office) and Flip Out (the Australian-founded operation, plus international franchises) are the three dominant brands. A typical trampoline park covers 2000 to 4500 square metres with a main jump arena, dodgeball court, foam pit, performance trampolines, ninja warrior obstacle course, climbing wall and toddler zone, plus a cafe, party room and reception. The jump arena is the dominant HVAC challenge — active jumpers run at 6 to 10 MET, three to five times sedentary, which inflates per-person CO2 and latent load proportionally and pushes the AS 1668.2 outdoor air sizing well above any standard sedentary baseline. The foam pit generates flake-foam dust that requires floor-level capture and HEPA filtration. The performance trampoline area runs higher per-occupant loads because performers are working at top intensity for longer cycles than recreational jumpers.

Indoor climbing and bouldering gym

Indoor climbing operations have proliferated in Australia since 2015. BlocHaus, 9Degrees, Latitude (which combines climbing with trampoline and parkour), Boulder Co., Climbing Edge and The Cliffhanger are among the larger operators. A typical climbing facility includes a top-rope and lead climbing volume with walls 12 to 18 m high, a bouldering cave with 4 to 5 m walls and crash pads, an auto-belay section, training boards (campus, hangboard, system board) and a gym floor. Climbing-specific HVAC concerns are dominated by magnesium carbonate chalk dust. Climbers chalk their hands between routes and the powder spreads through the volume during peak sessions, settling on every horizontal surface and accumulating in the breathing zone. Dedicated high-flow general ventilation with HEPA H13 or H14 final filtration on the return side is now standard at every modern operation, with supply diffusers positioned to drive dust downward toward floor-level extract grilles rather than re-entraining it upward.

Indoor electric go-kart track

Modern Australian indoor karting has largely shifted to electric. Le Mans Karts Melbourne, EnergyKart and similar operators run battery-powered karts on rubberised tracks with safety barriers, with the karts maintained in a service bay between the track and the reception area. Electric kart HVAC is essentially conventional assembly-grade ventilation per AS 1668.2 with modest tyre warm-up dust and brake-pad dust capture. The dominant HVAC concern is general comfort across the spectator viewing zones and the track itself, with NC-30 to NC-35 acoustic acceptable given the source noise from kart motors and tyre squeal.

Indoor petrol go-kart track

A shrinking sub-sector — Karting Spafields Sydney and a handful of operations elsewhere still run petrol four-stroke or two-stroke karts in enclosed buildings. The HVAC challenge is dramatically different from electric: every kart on the track generates carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons at rates that without proper local source-capture exhaust will exceed the Safe Work Australia 30 ppm CO WES within minutes. Plymovent style local source-capture systems at every grid position, supplementary general track ventilation, and spark-resistant duct in any zone above the petrol storage flash threshold are mandatory. The pit-lane service area runs as a Zone 2 hazardous area for petrol handling.

Indoor laser tag arena

Laser tag arenas combine theatrical fog, blacklight UV illumination, low-level theatrical lighting and corona-discharge fog generators in a contained play volume of typically 300 to 800 square metres. The contaminant load is dominated by glycol-based theatrical fog particulate plus low-level ozone from the fog generators. General extract sized to hold glycol fog concentration below approximately 50 to 60 mg per cubic metre at the patron breathing zone, plus dedicated ozone extract at each fog generator to hold ozone below the Safe Work Australia 0.1 ppm WES. Floor-level return path clears fog between rounds.

Indoor skate park and scooter park

Indoor skate parks — including some operations co-located with trampoline parks at Latitude, plus stand-alone operations across Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane — present relatively conventional assembly-occupancy HVAC: AS 1668.2 outdoor air with active-occupant correction, modest dust from concrete and timber ramps, no specific contaminant capture beyond general ventilation. Acoustic targets are unforgiving in the practical sense (skateboards on concrete are loud) but HVAC NC criterion is relaxed at NC-35 to NC-40.

Bowling alley

The bowling sector in Australia includes the dedicated tenpin chains (Zone Bowling, AMF Bowling) and the FEC bowling components (Strike Bowling at Funlab Group sites, plus bowling inside many Holey Moley and Archie Brothers venues). Modern bowling alleys are essentially climate-controlled assembly buildings with a long narrow lane footprint, modest activity level (bowlers are at 2 to 3 MET) and a bar-and-cafe service area as the primary HVAC complication. AS 1668.2 outdoor air at standard assembly rates, NC-30 to NC-35 acoustic, modest latent load management.

Arcade, VR and mixed-reality lounge

Timezone (owned by The Entertainment and Education Group) operates Australia's largest arcade footprint with 50-plus sites nationally, combining classic arcade games, prize redemption, VR experiences and food and beverage. Mixed-reality lounges and VR-only operations are a newer sub-sector with venues across major metropolitan markets. Arcade HVAC is one of the cleanest controlled environments in the FEC sector — patrons are essentially stationary at machines, contaminant load is minimal, and the dominant HVAC concern is thermal comfort plus modest CO2 management at peak occupancy. NC-35 to NC-40 acoustic is acceptable given the high source noise from the arcade machines themselves.

Indoor mini-golf

Holey Moley (Funlab Group), Strike Indoor Mini Golf and the various venue-specific indoor mini-golf operations combine a themed 9 or 18 hole mini-golf circuit with a bar and lounge service. HVAC is conventional assembly-grade, with the dominant concerns being thermal comfort during peak occupancy and latent load management from bar service and dancing if the venue operates with late-night entertainment.

Soft play and kids zone

Soft play kids zones appear inside almost every modern FEC, large McDonald's, IKEA store, shopping centre and indoor amusement venue. Multi-storey climbing modules with foam padding, ball pits, slide structures and crawl tunnels for children typically 2 to 12. The HVAC challenge is over-ventilation — children breathe at approximately twice the per-kilogram CO2 production of an adult, are active rather than seated, and present a higher per-body latent load. AS 1668.2 outdoor air sized at adult-seated rates is insufficient. The standard sizing approach is V_p at 10 L/s per child plus V_a at 0.6 to 0.9 L/s per square metre with CO2 DCV up to 1.5 times the baseline at peak occupancy.

Animatronics back-of-house and character costume

Back-of-house workshops for animatronic figure maintenance and character costume storage at major theme parks need humidity control (typically 40 to 60 percent RH year-round) to protect electronics, paint finishes and elastomer components, plus supplementary cooling for the character costume room because performers preparing for shifts in heavy costumes generate significant body heat. AS 1668.2 base ventilation plus dedicated humidity control overlay.

Ride storage warehouse

Off-season storage for parade floats, removable themed elements and ride spare parts. Humidity control is the primary HVAC concern — uncontrolled humidity destroys paint finishes, electronics and elastomer parts over a single off-season. Conventional warehouse HVAC with mechanical dehumidification capability.

Concession stand and food court

Every theme park, FEC and indoor amusement venue generates significant food and beverage HVAC scope. Concession stand kitchens, food court tenancy galleys, family bar food service and themed restaurant kitchens all require NFPA 96 / AS 1668.2 Section 5 commercial kitchen exhaust with 304L stainless steel ductwork, fully welded liquid-tight construction, hood-to-cooking-surface clearance, fire suppression integration and rooftop fan with grease management. Run independently of all other HVAC.

The Australian theme park operator landscape

The Australian outdoor and indoor theme park sector is concentrated under a small number of listed operators plus a long tail of single-venue and trust-owned operations. Understanding the corporate landscape is the first step in any sales or design conversation.

Village Roadshow (ASX:VRL)

Village Roadshow operates the largest cluster of theme parks in Australia — Warner Bros. Movie World, Sea World, Wet'n'Wild Gold Coast and Paradise Country, all on the Gold Coast. The portfolio also includes Sea World Resort accommodation and the historic Australian Outback Spectacular show venue. Village Roadshow has been through significant corporate restructuring including private equity ownership transitions over the 2020 to 2024 period, and the capital programme on the theme park assets has been active — ride refurbishments, new attraction installations and back-of-house infrastructure upgrades. HVAC retrofit scope at Village Roadshow sites is concentrated in the food and beverage outlets, the dark ride show buildings and the indoor sections of the water park.

Ardent Leisure (ASX:ALG)

Ardent Leisure operates Dreamworld and WhiteWater World on the Gold Coast, plus formerly the AMF Bowling chain (sold in 2018) and the Main Event US FEC chain (the US business now separated as Main Event Entertainment). Dreamworld and WhiteWater World represent the second major Gold Coast theme park complex alongside Village's Movie World and Sea World, and the capital programme since the 2016 Thunder River Rapids accident has been substantial — safety system upgrades, ride refurbishments and new attraction installations. The combined Dreamworld plus WhiteWater World HVAC footprint is one of the largest themed leisure HVAC scopes in the country.

Luna Park Melbourne

Luna Park Melbourne sits at St Kilda Beach under Mary Family Trust ownership. The park operates a mix of vintage heritage rides (the 1912 Scenic Railway, the oldest continuously operating wooden roller coaster in the world) plus newer additions, with most of the HVAC scope concentrated in the indoor pavilions, food outlets and back-of-house operations. The park's heritage-listed Mr Moon face entry is iconic. Heritage fabric protection significantly limits HVAC intervention on the listed structures and any retrofit must work around the existing fabric.

Luna Park Sydney

Luna Park Sydney at Milsons Point sits under Brookfield Multiplex Asset Management ownership and has been through multiple ownership transitions and rebuilds over its history. The current park combines a small footprint of outdoor rides with the heritage-listed entry face and Big Top, plus indoor function spaces and food and beverage. Operating-hour acoustic compliance conditions apply at the residential boundary along Lavender Bay. HVAC scope is dominated by the indoor function and food and beverage components.

Adventure World Perth

Adventure World at Bibra Lake south of Perth is Western Australia's largest theme park, combining water park and dry park elements on a single site. The seasonal operating model (closed for the southern hemisphere autumn and winter) sets the maintenance and retrofit window — typically March to August — and HVAC scope on site is concentrated in the food and beverage outlets, the indoor pavilions and the back-of-house workshops.

WaterWorld Perth and other WA aquatic leisure

The Western Australian aquatic leisure market includes WaterWorld Perth alongside the Adventure World water park section, the various public aquatic centre leisure pool installations and the indoor pool slide complexes at hotels and resorts. The Perth indoor aquatic leisure sub-sector has been a consistent retrofit market for 316L stainless duct under AS 4818.

Sea World Resort and integrated theme park accommodation

Sea World Resort, Paradise Resort Gold Coast and the various integrated theme park accommodation properties combine hotel HVAC with the adjacent theme park amenity. The hotel HVAC scope is conventional hospitality (see Hotel and Hospitality HVAC Duct Guide) but the integration with the adjacent theme park entry, restaurant and amusement amenity adds a layer of mixed-occupancy HVAC complexity.

Australia's Wonderland (historic) and the former Western Sydney park

Australia's Wonderland at Eastern Creek operated from 1985 to 2004 and was the largest theme park in New South Wales. The site is now Western Sydney Parklands. The historical reference is useful because periodic proposals to reopen a major Sydney theme park surface in state government infrastructure planning, and any future Western Sydney park would represent a substantial HVAC scope.

The Australian FEC and indoor amusement landscape

Beyond the major theme park operators, the indoor amusement and family entertainment centre sector accounts for the bulk of the recurring HVAC retrofit market in Australia.

Timezone (TEEG — The Entertainment and Education Group)

Timezone is the largest arcade and FEC chain in Australia with 50-plus sites nationally and operations across Asia-Pacific. Each site combines classic and modern arcade games, prize redemption, VR experiences, bowling at some sites, mini-golf at others, soft play kids zones at family sites and food and beverage. TEEG has been an active acquirer of FEC brands across the region and the Timezone capital programme runs through new-site openings, existing-site refurbishments and the integration of acquired venues. HVAC retrofit at Timezone sites is concentrated in the kids zones, the bowling lanes and the food and beverage areas.

Funlab Group (Strike Bowling, Holey Moley, Archie Brothers, Sky Hi)

Funlab operates four major FEC brands: Strike Bowling (boutique bowling and bar), Holey Moley (mini-golf and bar), Archie Brothers (adult-focused FEC with bowling, arcade and bar) and Sky Hi (rooftop social venues). The combined Funlab footprint covers more than 50 venues across the Australian capital cities and represents one of the most active FEC retrofit programmes in the country. Each brand has a distinct HVAC profile — Strike is dominated by bowling lane HVAC, Holey Moley by themed mini-golf course HVAC plus bar service, Archie Brothers by integrated FEC mixed occupancy.

Sky Zone Australia

Sky Zone is the largest trampoline park chain in Australia with 30-plus locations under a master franchise structure. The Sky Zone Australia operations team coordinates fitout standards, equipment specifications and HVAC compliance across the franchise network. New Sky Zone fitouts run through a standard 2500 to 4000 square metre footprint with main jump arena, performance trampolines, foam pit, ninja course, dodgeball, climbing wall, toddler zone, cafe and party rooms. HVAC scope per site is typically 200 to 400 kW installed cooling plus dedicated jump-arena outdoor air at active-occupant rates.

Bounce Inc

Bounce Inc was founded in Melbourne in 2012 and operates 25-plus Australian sites plus international franchises. The Bounce footprint and operating model is similar to Sky Zone, with the dominant HVAC requirements being trampoline jump arena outdoor air at active rates, performance trampoline zone, foam pit dust capture and integrated cafe service. Bounce's Melbourne head office coordinates the Australian fitout standards.

Flip Out Australia

Flip Out is the Australian-founded trampoline park brand with operations across Australia plus international franchise growth. Each Flip Out site runs the standard trampoline park footprint with site-specific variations in the accessory features (some sites include indoor climbing, some include laser tag, some include ninja warrior obstacle courses).

Latitude

Latitude operates a multi-activity FEC format combining trampoline, parkour, indoor climbing, slack lines and obstacle courses across Australian metropolitan locations. The integrated multi-activity model means a single HVAC system serves trampoline jump arena, climbing volume and parkour gym in adjacent zones — each with different metabolic rates, contaminant loads and acoustic envelopes. Latitude's HVAC sizing requires careful zoning to handle the mixed activity profile without over- or under-ventilating any zone.

BlocHaus, 9Degrees, Boulder Co., Climbing Edge, The Cliffhanger

The dedicated indoor climbing sector includes BlocHaus (Sydney and Melbourne), 9Degrees (Sydney, Brisbane, Melbourne, Perth), Boulder Co. (Melbourne), Climbing Edge (Sydney) and The Cliffhanger (Mount Cotton QLD). Each operation runs a typical 800 to 2500 square metre climbing volume with top-rope, lead, auto-belay and bouldering zones plus training boards and a gym floor. Chalk dust HEPA capture is the unifying HVAC challenge across the sector.

Zone Bowling, AMF Bowling, Funland Australia

Zone Bowling and AMF Bowling are the two largest dedicated tenpin chains in Australia, with Zone operating premium sites and AMF the mass-market footprint. Funland Australia operates the historical Funland Geelong site plus other regional venues. Bowling HVAC is conventional assembly-grade with the bar service area as the primary latent load.

Karting operators

Le Mans Karts Melbourne, EnergyKart Melbourne and a handful of other operations represent the modern electric indoor karting sector. Karting Spafields Sydney and remaining petrol operations represent the shrinking petrol indoor karting sub-sector. The HVAC profiles are fundamentally different between electric (conventional assembly ventilation) and petrol (workshop-grade source capture exhaust).

Indoor surfing — FlowRider, Aquatopia

FlowRider wave installations and indoor surfing operations create a localised splash zone with the HVAC challenges of a water ride compressed into a smaller footprint. Aquatopia and similar mixed indoor water-attraction venues operate in this category, with 316L stainless steel duct, dehumidification and AS 4818 compliance the defining requirements.

Funhaven and Funland — regional FEC operations

Funhaven Adelaide and Funland Australia operate regional FEC formats serving secondary markets that are typically out of reach of the Funlab and Timezone urban footprints. The HVAC profile is similar to the urban FEC operations with regionally-appropriate sizing.

Galaxy Brick Lane, Sea Life, WILD LIFE, Madame Tussauds, LEGOLAND Discovery Centre — Merlin Entertainments

Merlin Entertainments operates the cluster of indoor branded attractions at Darling Harbour Sydney (Sea Life Sydney Aquarium, WILD LIFE Sydney Zoo, Madame Tussauds Sydney) plus the LEGOLAND Discovery Centre Melbourne at Chadstone, and Sea Life Melbourne at Melbourne Aquarium. Each attraction has a specific HVAC profile: aquariums require life-support HVAC for the animal exhibits plus public-area ventilation; the wax figure museum requires close climate control to protect the wax figures; the LEGOLAND Discovery Centre combines themed dark ride attractions with general assembly ventilation. The combined Merlin Australia footprint is a long-term recurring HVAC retrofit market.

AALARA — Australian Amusement Leisure and Recreation Association

AALARA is the industry body representing operators across the amusement, leisure and recreation sector — theme parks, FECs, trampoline parks, climbing gyms, indoor karting, bowling and the broader entertainment industry. AALARA member compliance guidance, the annual AALARA Conference & Trade Show and the technical bulletins on AS 3533 amusement rides interpretation are the principal industry references for operators specifying HVAC retrofits or new fitouts.

Standards and codes — the regulatory matrix for amusement and FEC HVAC

Theme park, amusement and FEC HVAC operates under a layered Australian regulatory framework. The headline standards are listed below; the project-specific code matrix will reference each of these against the specific occupancy classification, building height, audience capacity and ride or attraction overlay.

AS 1668.2 — Mechanical ventilation in buildings

The principal Australian ventilation standard. AS 1668.2 sets minimum outdoor air rates for assembly occupancies (closely aligned with ASHRAE 62.1), local exhaust requirements for kitchens, scene shops and process areas, and the carpark and garage ventilation rates that apply to indoor parking under any theme park or FEC. AS 1668.2 Section 5 covers process exhaust including commercial kitchens; Section 6 covers general exhaust including toilet, change room and similar. AS 1668.2 is referenced by the National Construction Code (NCC) and is the legally enforceable ventilation code in Australian projects.

AS 1668.1 — Fire and smoke control in buildings

AS 1668.1 covers the fire and smoke control side of the AS 1668 series — smoke exhaust systems, smoke spill systems for atria, fire damper and smoke damper installation, fire-rated duct construction and the commissioning testing required at handover. Indoor theme park pavilions, large FEC volumes and multi-storey amusement venues typically trigger AS 1668.1 atrium or large-volume smoke management.

AS 4254 — Ductwork construction

AS/NZS 4254 is the Australian standard for HVAC ductwork construction with parts 4254.1 (flexible duct) and 4254.2 (rigid duct, sheet metal). Low-pressure ductwork to 4254.2 covers the bulk of theme park and FEC HVAC supply, return and exhaust scope, with medium-pressure construction for smoke control duct and welded liquid-tight construction for kitchen exhaust and water-zone duct.

AS 1530.4 — Fire-resistance tests

AS 1530.4 governs fire-rated duct construction, fire damper testing and fire-rated penetrations at compartment boundaries. Theme park indoor pavilions and FECs are typically NCC Class 9b assembly buildings with multiple fire compartments, and AS 1530.4 fire-rated duct sections are required at every fire compartment boundary penetration.

AS 3533.1 — Amusement rides and devices, general requirements

AS 3533.1 sets the general safety, design, manufacture, inspection, operation, maintenance and modification requirements for amusement rides and devices in Australia. The ride itself is covered by AS 3533.1; the HVAC system interacts with AS 3533.1 at the operator-occupied control booth, the ride loading and unloading areas, the queue zones and the ride storage and maintenance areas. Ventilation in operator control booths must be sized for the occupants present plus any contaminant from adjacent show effects.

AS 3533.3 — Amusement rides and devices, specific requirements (water rides, dark rides)

AS 3533.3 covers ride-specific safety requirements including water rides and dark rides — the two ride categories with the most HVAC interaction. Water rides require the wet-air envelope HVAC overlay with 316L stainless duct and dehumidification. Dark rides require the AS 4426 specific compliance plus scene-level fog and ozone extract.

AS 3533.4 — Amusement rides and devices, design and construction

AS 3533.4 covers the design and construction requirements for amusement rides including the integration of building systems (HVAC, fire protection, lighting, audio) into the ride architecture. The HVAC design must coordinate with the ride structural design, the ride vehicle path, the emergency egress paths and the maintenance access provisions.

AS 4426 — Dark ride specific compliance

AS 4426 covers the dark ride specific safety requirements including emergency lighting, low-level egress lighting paths, ventilation, emergency communication and the operator-area provisions. The HVAC system on a dark ride must integrate with AS 4426 emergency smoke clearance, the low-level egress lighting must not be obstructed by ductwork, and the emergency communication path must remain functional during HVAC failure.

AS 4818 — Water rides and water slides

AS 4818 covers the water ride and water slide design, construction, operation and maintenance requirements including the splash zone HVAC envelope, the dehumidification capacity required and the chloramine extraction at the water surface. AS 4818 applies to log flumes, river rapids rides, splash boat rides, water slides and indoor pool slide complexes.

AS 2118 — Sprinkler systems

AS 2118 covers automatic sprinkler systems in buildings. Indoor amusement venues and FECs are typically sprinkler-protected throughout, and the HVAC ductwork must be installed to avoid obstructing sprinkler coverage. Sprinkler design (AS 2118.1 base standard, AS 2118.6 special hazard occupancy) interacts with the HVAC duct routing in any ceiling void.

AS 1851 — Fire protection routine service

AS 1851 covers the routine service of fire protection systems including the testing, inspection and maintenance schedule for smoke control HVAC ductwork, fire and smoke dampers, fire suppression systems and the related electrical interlocks. Theme park and FEC operators must maintain AS 1851 compliance throughout the operational life of the venue.

AS 1428 — Design for access and mobility (DDA)

AS 1428 covers the accessibility requirements for buildings under the Disability Discrimination Act. The HVAC system interacts with AS 1428 at any control panel installation height, at any thermostat location and at any accessible route where ductwork installation must clear the minimum head clearance.

AS 3580 — Boundary noise and odour

AS 3580 covers the boundary noise and odour standards applicable at the property boundary for any rooftop exhaust fan, cooling tower, food service exhaust discharge or similar emission source. Theme park sites near residential interfaces (Luna Park Melbourne, Luna Park Sydney) routinely have operating-hour acoustic compliance conditions requiring in-duct silencers on rooftop discharges and discharge orientation away from residential boundaries.

ASHRAE Applications Chapter 4 — Places of assembly

ASHRAE Applications Chapter 4 covers HVAC for places of assembly including theatres, auditoria, arenas, convention centres and similar large-occupancy spaces. The Chapter 4 guidance is the dominant North American reference and is widely cross-referenced in Australian projects alongside AS 1668.2.

ASHRAE 62.1 — Ventilation for acceptable indoor air quality

ASHRAE 62.1 Table 6-1 prescribes minimum ventilation rates for entertainment-occupancy spaces. The applicable line items for theme park and FEC HVAC include spectator areas, activity areas (gymnasium and sport activity), entertainment lobbies and prefunction spaces, and amusement venues. ASHRAE 62.1 is widely cross-referenced in Australian projects alongside AS 1668.2.

NCC Class 9b — Assembly building

The National Construction Code Class 9b classification covers assembly buildings — places of public gathering for entertainment, social, religious, cultural or political purposes. Indoor theme park pavilions, FECs, trampoline parks, climbing gyms, bowling alleys, laser tag arenas and similar venues are typically Class 9b. The Class 9b classification triggers the AS 1668 series ventilation and smoke control requirements, the NCC Section J energy efficiency requirements and the NCC Volume 1 deemed-to-satisfy provisions for assembly buildings.

NFPA 13 — Sprinkler installation (US cross-reference)

NFPA 13 is the North American sprinkler installation standard widely cross-referenced in Australian projects, particularly for the international franchise operations (Sky Zone, FlowRider) where the international parent organisation's design standard references NFPA. The Australian equivalent AS 2118 takes precedence in jurisdictional compliance.

NFPA 92 — Smoke control (US cross-reference)

NFPA 92 covers atrium smoke control and is the North American equivalent of AS 1668.1 atrium provisions. Multi-storey indoor amusement venues, FEC concourse atria and indoor theme park pavilions frequently reference NFPA 92 alongside the AS 1668.1 Australian compliance pathway.

NFPA 96 — Commercial kitchen exhaust (US cross-reference)

NFPA 96 governs commercial kitchen exhaust including theme park food court hoods, FEC family bar kitchens and concession stand galleys. Specifies 304L stainless steel duct with fully welded liquid-tight construction, hood-to-cooking-surface clearance, fire suppression system integration and rooftop fan with grease management. AS 1668.2 Section 5 provides the Australian equivalent.

Safe Work Australia Workplace Exposure Standards (WES)

The Safe Work Australia WES table sets the legally enforceable exposure limits for chemical contaminants in Australian workplaces. The headline WES applicable to theme park and FEC HVAC design include ozone at 0.1 ppm (eight-hour time-weighted average — applies to laser tag fog generators and dark ride corona-discharge effects), carbon monoxide at 30 ppm (eight-hour TWA — applies to indoor petrol kart tracks), glycol fog particulate at approximately 50 to 60 mg per cubic metre (industry guidance threshold — applies to theatrical fog in dark rides and laser tag), and latex foam dust (applies to trampoline park foam pits with latex-based foam blocks).

Outdoor theme park HVAC — concentrated in the indoor pockets

The classic Gold Coast model of an open-air theme park (Movie World, Sea World, Wet'n'Wild, Paradise Country, Dreamworld, WhiteWater World) has minimal HVAC scope across the queue lines, ride paths and midway — the patrons are outdoors and ambient conditioning is by Brisbane and Gold Coast subtropical climate. The HVAC scope is concentrated in the indoor pockets: food and beverage outlets, dark ride show buildings, indoor shows and theatres, retail stores, restrooms, animal exhibits, back-of-house workshops, ride storage and administration. A typical Gold Coast major theme park has 40 to 80 separate air handlers serving these indoor pockets, with the duct package totalling 8 to 15 km of ductwork across the site.

Food and beverage outlets

The dominant HVAC scope at an outdoor theme park is food and beverage. A typical park has 15 to 30 separate food outlets ranging from large sit-down restaurants (1500 to 3000 square metres) to small grab-and-go kiosks. Each outlet has its own NFPA 96 commercial kitchen exhaust running on dedicated 304L stainless steel duct, plus general dining-area HVAC, plus a back-of-house kitchen prep area, plus toilet exhaust. Across a major Gold Coast park the kitchen exhaust scope alone totals 2 to 4 km of stainless steel duct.

Indoor show buildings

Outdoor theme parks include multiple indoor show buildings — themed dark rides, immersive walk-through experiences, theatre shows, 4D cinema experiences and animatronic shows. Each show building runs its own HVAC architecture per the relevant ride or show overlay. Dark rides trigger AS 4426 plus AS 1668.2 with scene-level fog and ozone extract; theatre shows run cinema-grade displacement HVAC; 4D cinema and animatronic shows run conventional assembly HVAC with effect-system contaminant capture as required.

Retail stores

Theme parks include extensive retail operations — themed merchandise stores, photo opportunity venues, candy shops, gift shops. Retail HVAC is conventional retail occupancy with thermal comfort and modest CO2 management as the primary concerns. Galvanised duct on standard SBAL-V auto duct line specifications.

Restrooms and change rooms

Theme park restroom blocks are sized for the peak hourly patron throughput plus operational reserve, typically 30 to 80 fixtures per major block. Restroom exhaust runs at AS 1668.2 Section 6 rates per fixture plus the change room ventilation requirements for water park sites. Galvanised exhaust duct routed to rooftop fans.

Animal exhibits and aquaria

Sea World and the Dreamworld animal precincts include marine and terrestrial animal exhibits with the corresponding life-support HVAC overlay. Aquarium tank water treatment generates ozone in many filtration systems and requires ozone extract at the equipment side per Safe Work Australia WES. Animal exhibit ventilation must also consider zoonotic disease control and the comfort requirements of the species housed.

Back-of-house workshops and ride storage

Theme park back-of-house includes ride maintenance workshops, animatronics workshops, character costume rooms, ride spare parts storage, parade float storage and administration offices. Each space has its own HVAC profile per the AS 1668.2 process category and the contaminant load. Ride maintenance workshops add the metal fabrication and paint shop overlay; animatronics workshops add electronics-protection humidity control; ride storage adds humidity control for paint and elastomer preservation.

Indoor theme park HVAC — assembly building with attraction overlay

Indoor theme parks — the Luna Park Melbourne and Sydney indoor zones, LEGOLAND Discovery Centre Melbourne, the indoor sections of Movie World and Dreamworld, immersive themed experiences inside major shopping centres — combine the show-building density of an outdoor park's dark ride zone with the full assembly-occupancy ventilation requirements of a Class 9b building.

Pavilion ventilation architecture

The indoor theme park pavilion is sized as a large-volume assembly building. Outdoor air is sized at AS 1668.2 spectator-area rates for the public circulation zones plus active-zone rates for any interactive attractions. The supply architecture is typically a high-level mixing supply through a network of round spiral duct (SBTF-1602 fabricated tubeformer specification) and rectangular branch duct, with returns at the high level via the building structural plenum. Acoustic targets are NC-30 to NC-35 across the public spaces; specific show buildings inside the pavilion run their own internal acoustic envelopes.

Show building integration

Each dark ride, themed walk-through and theatre show inside the indoor theme park has its own dedicated HVAC zone with the corresponding AS standard overlay. The show building HVAC integrates with the pavilion HVAC at the entry queue, where outdoor air make-up enters the show building, and at the exit, where return air from the show building rejoins the pavilion return path.

Atrium smoke management

Multi-storey indoor theme park pavilions trigger AS 1668.1 atrium smoke management. The smoke layer is held above the highest occupant walking surface using powered smoke exhaust at the atrium head, makeup air at the base and dedicated smoke-control ductwork in welded galvanised steel with TDF flanges. Design fire size is typically 5 to 10 MW depending on fuel load.

Retail tenancy and food court integration

Indoor theme park pavilions typically include retail tenancy and food court precincts inside the building envelope. The tenancy HVAC integrates with the base building plant through landlord-and-tenant connection points, with the base building providing chilled water, condenser water or VRF and the tenancy providing its own air handler, supply ductwork and grilles.

Dark ride HVAC — AS 4426 plus AS 1668.2 plus glycol fog and ozone

Dark rides are one of the most HVAC-intensive attraction categories per square metre of footprint. The combination of theatrical fog generators, high-intensity stage lighting, animatronic characters and themed lighting in a contained volume produces a sustained contaminant load that must be cleared between cycles and held below worker exposure standards continuously.

Glycol fog particulate

The dominant contaminant in any dark ride is glycol-based theatrical fog. Glycol fog generators atomise propylene glycol or a propylene-glycol-water mixture into a fine particulate cloud that lingers in the show volume to create the haze for lighting beams and atmosphere effects. The particulate is benign at occasional exposure but accumulates in confined volumes; the industry guidance threshold for sustained exposure is approximately 50 to 60 mg per cubic metre. Dark ride HVAC must capture the glycol fog drift at scene level — typically with low-level extract grilles along the ride path at strategic locations — before it diffuses through the volume and pushes operator exposure above the threshold.

Ozone from corona-discharge fog generators

Corona-discharge fog generators (high-voltage atomisation) produce low-level ozone as a side product. Hazer-type theatrical fog machines and DMX-controlled stage fog generators of this category are common in modern dark rides. Ozone is regulated under Safe Work Australia WES at 0.1 ppm eight-hour TWA, and dark ride HVAC must include dedicated ozone extract at each corona-discharge fog generator location to hold operator exposure below this threshold.

Stage lighting heat load

Dark ride show scenes use high-intensity theatrical lighting — typically 5 to 30 kW per scene with peak loads on themed effect scenes running higher. The combined lighting heat load is dissipated to the show volume and must be removed by the HVAC system. Stage lighting heat load is typically 80 to 95 percent radiant and 5 to 20 percent convective, which affects the HVAC sensible load calculation.

Emergency smoke clearance

AS 4426 requires emergency smoke clearance in dark rides — the HVAC system must be able to switch from normal cycling-fog operation to full smoke-clearance exhaust mode in under three minutes for evacuation in a fire event. The smoke clearance mode runs the entire dark ride volume to full exhaust capacity with smoke dampers in the open position and the supply fans modulated to provide make-up. The smoke clearance acceptance test under AS 1668.4 is part of the AS 4426 commissioning protocol.

Operator booth HVAC

The dark ride operator booth — where the ride operator monitors the ride, communicates with patrons and controls the dispatch — is a small enclosed space adjacent to the ride path. Operator booth HVAC must hold occupant comfort, capture any fog drift entering the booth from adjacent show areas and provide an emergency communication path. Typical operator booth HVAC is a dedicated supply at floor level with high-level return back to the dark ride HVAC system.

Duct material and construction

Dark ride duct material is galvanised steel for the bulk of the ductwork, with welded galvanised TDF flanges on the smoke-control sections. The duct construction must accommodate the cycling-fog environment without corrosion — propylene glycol is non-corrosive but the high humidity of cycling-fog operation can drive condensation in any duct section below dew point. Insulation and condensation drainage at duct low points is essential.

Water ride splash zone HVAC — 316L stainless and AS 4818

Water ride splash zones, indoor pool slide complexes and indoor surfing operations operate in the wettest air envelope in the entire commercial HVAC field after public aquatic centre pool halls.

The wet-air envelope

The wet-air envelope of a water ride splash zone runs at 70 to 85 percent relative humidity with chloramine (NH2Cl) loading from chlorinated water. Chloramine forms when free chlorine in pool water reacts with nitrogen-containing organic compounds (urea, perspiration, body oils) and partitions into the air at the water surface. Chloramine is the dominant indoor pool air contaminant, the source of the characteristic "chlorine smell" of poorly-ventilated indoor pools, and is associated with respiratory irritation and chronic respiratory complaints in long-exposure occupants.

Material selection

316L stainless steel duct is the only practical specification inside the wet-air envelope of a water ride splash zone or indoor pool slide complex. Galvanised steel corrodes within 2 to 5 years in chloramine-loaded humid air — the zinc coating is consumed by the chloramine attack and pinhole rust appears at every seam and joint. 304L stainless steel pits within 5 to 10 years — the chromium-nickel passivation layer breaks down under chloride attack and pitting corrosion appears. 316L stainless steel adds molybdenum to the chemistry and gives 20-plus years of service life in this environment. SBKJ fabricates 316L on the SBAL-III auto duct line and the SBSF-1525 shear-fold brake for splash zone and indoor pool applications.

Dehumidification

Supply air to the splash zone must be dehumidified to 50 to 60 percent RH per AS 4818 before delivery. Mechanical dehumidification at the air handler is the dominant approach — a refrigeration coil condenses moisture from the supply air, the dried air is reheated to room temperature, and the condensate is drained. The dehumidification capacity sizing is critical: under-sized dehumidification results in the splash zone running at 80-plus percent RH and the chloramine concentration climbing; over-sized dehumidification wastes energy and over-dries the splash zone.

Chloramine extraction at the water surface

Chloramine partitions from the water surface into the air at the water-air interface, and the most effective extraction strategy is to capture the chloramine plume at the water surface before it diffuses through the splash zone volume. AS 4818 references the perimeter water-line extract approach — a continuous slot extract running around the perimeter of the splash pool at the water line that captures the chloramine plume at source. The perimeter extract runs at typically 8 to 12 L/s per linear metre of pool perimeter.

General splash zone ventilation

Above the water-surface extract, the splash zone volume requires general ventilation sized for the patron occupant load plus the heat dissipated by water heating, plus the latent load from open water surface evaporation and splash spray. AS 1668.2 outdoor air at active-occupant rates plus AS 4818 splash zone ventilation provisions set the design rate.

Trampoline park HVAC — the active-occupant outdoor air calculation

Trampoline parks represent one of the highest-metabolic-rate occupancies that AS 1668.2 was ever asked to handle. The standard sedentary outdoor air calculation is inadequate; the active-occupant calculation drives the design.

Metabolic rate of an active jumper

A recreational trampoline park jumper works at 6 to 10 MET (metabolic equivalent of task, where 1 MET equals approximately 1 kcal/kg/h or roughly 60 W of metabolic heat output for an 80 kg adult). Performance trampoline athletes work at the higher end and competitive jumpers can sustain 12 to 15 MET in short bursts. The CO2 generation rate scales linearly with MET, so an active jumper generates 6 to 10 times the CO2 of a sedentary office worker. Latent heat load scales similarly.

Outdoor air sizing

Apply AS 1668.2 V_p at the upper end of 10 L/s per person for an active occupant in a high-metabolic-rate zone (the standard sedentary V_p is 8 L/s per person; the higher value reflects the active occupancy). Add V_a at 1 L/s per square metre of jump arena floor area. For a 1500 square metre jump arena with 80 simultaneous jumpers, the resulting design outdoor air rate is approximately 80 × 10 + 1500 × 1 = 2300 L/s. Add a 50 to 80 percent over-ventilation margin to provide CO2 headroom at peak occupancy and to handle the higher per-person latent load, yielding a design outdoor air of approximately 3500 to 4100 L/s for this zone.

Demand-controlled ventilation

CO2-driven DCV is mandatory at any modern trampoline park. Multiple CO2 sensors per zone (at minimum one per 500 square metres of active zone) feed the outdoor air damper modulation. The setpoint is typically 1000 ppm with a deadband of 100 ppm and a damper response time of 60 to 120 seconds. Without DCV, peak CO2 in a packed jump arena climbs past 2500 ppm within 30 minutes of sold-out operation and the operator gets complaints from staff first.

Foam pit dust capture

The foam pit — the rectangular pit filled with cubed foam blocks for safe-landing dives — generates significant foam dust through continuous patron use. The dust is latex-based in older foam pit installations (and is itself a Safe Work Australia regulated exposure for latex sensitisation) and polyurethane in newer installations. Floor-level extract grilles at the base of the foam pit, plus HEPA H13 filtration on the return side, capture the dust before it diffuses into the patron breathing zone of the broader jump arena.

Performance trampoline zone

The performance trampoline zone — the higher-performance section of the trampoline park used by serious recreational and competitive jumpers — runs at higher metabolic rates than the recreational arena and requires correspondingly higher outdoor air per square metre. Performance trampoline zone outdoor air sizing typically runs 1.3 to 1.5 times the recreational arena rate.

Toddler zone HVAC

Most modern trampoline parks include a dedicated toddler zone separated from the main jump arena. Toddler zone HVAC follows the soft play and kids zone sizing approach — children at active metabolic rates, higher per-kilogram CO2 production, lower per-occupant supply velocity tolerance and floor-level returns for foam pit dust and crumb capture.

Acoustic targets

Trampoline park acoustic targets are relaxed compared with cinema or theatre — NC-35 to NC-40 is acceptable given the high source noise from trampoline operation, music systems and patron noise. Boundary noise compliance at residential interfaces under AS 3580 is the dominant acoustic constraint on rooftop fan selection and discharge orientation.

Indoor climbing and bouldering HVAC — chalk dust and high-volume returns

Indoor climbing operations have proliferated in Australia since 2015 and now represent a substantial recurring HVAC retrofit market. The defining HVAC challenge is magnesium carbonate chalk dust capture.

The chalk dust problem

Climbers chalk their hands between routes to absorb perspiration and improve grip on holds. The chalk is magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) powder, packaged either as loose chalk or in chalk balls inside chalk bags. Chalk application releases fine respirable dust into the climbing volume — typically 1 to 5 mg per chalk application — and the cumulative dust load during a sold-out session can exceed 5 to 10 mg per cubic metre at the patron breathing zone if ventilation is undersized.

Dust capture strategy

Modern indoor climbing HVAC uses three coordinated mechanisms to capture chalk dust. First, supply diffusers are positioned at the high level to drive air downward through the climbing volume, sweeping chalk dust toward the floor rather than re-entraining it upward through the breathing zone. Second, floor-level extract grilles at the base of bouldering walls and along the climbing route lines capture dust at floor level before it resuspends. Third, HEPA H13 or H14 final filtration on the return side captures any residual respirable dust that escapes the floor-level capture.

Air change rate

Indoor climbing volume air change rates run 6 to 10 ACH versus 4 to 6 ACH for general assembly. The higher air change rate compensates for the chalk dust loading and the active-occupant CO2 generation (climbing is 4 to 8 MET on lead, 5 to 9 MET on bouldering at intensity). Bouldering caves run at the higher end of the air change range because the climbing volume is smaller and the dust concentration per cubic metre is correspondingly higher for the same chalk application rate.

HEPA filter sizing and replacement

HEPA H13 or H14 final filtration on the return side is sized for the design air change rate plus a service-life dust loading allowance. Filter replacement cycles run every 6 to 12 months depending on chalk dust loading at the specific site, with the pressure drop monitored continuously and the alarm setpoint at typically 250 Pa above clean condition. HEPA terminal devices on the air handler return are typically arranged in a multi-stage filter rack with pre-filters protecting the HEPA stage.

Climbing wall structural coordination

The climbing wall structure — typically a plywood-and-resin face supported on a steel frame with the back accessible for hold-setting and route maintenance — creates a constrained ductwork routing problem. The duct typically runs through the high-level space above the climbing wall rather than within the wall structure, with branches dropping down at strategic floor-level extract grille locations. Coordination with the climbing wall installer is essential during shell-and-core to fitout sequencing.

Auto-belay and lead climbing zones

The taller climbing volumes — auto-belay and lead climbing zones with 12 to 18 m walls — present a vertical stratification challenge that conventional mixing ventilation handles poorly. Floor-level supply with high-level return (effectively a displacement ventilation architecture in the vertical climbing volume) is increasingly the preferred approach at flagship climbing operations.

Training board and gym floor

The training board area (campus board, hangboard, system board) and the gym floor (yoga, stretching, warm-up) operate at lower metabolic rates than the climbing volume and at the kids zone or fitness centre HVAC profile. AS 1668.2 active-occupant outdoor air rates apply.

Indoor go-kart HVAC — electric versus petrol

The indoor go-kart sector splits into two fundamentally different HVAC profiles. Electric kart tracks run at conventional assembly-grade ventilation; petrol kart tracks require workshop-grade local source-capture exhaust.

Electric kart track HVAC

Modern electric indoor karting (Le Mans Karts Melbourne, EnergyKart, most current-generation operations) runs battery-powered karts on rubberised or polyurethane track surfaces with safety barriers. The HVAC scope is essentially conventional assembly-grade ventilation per AS 1668.2 with active-occupant correction for the drivers, spectator-area rates for the viewing zones and standard back-of-house ventilation for the kart maintenance bay. Modest tyre warm-up dust and brake-pad dust capture is provided through general return-side filtration. Acoustic target is NC-30 to NC-35.

Petrol kart track HVAC

Petrol-powered indoor karting (Karting Spafields Sydney and the shrinking sub-sector of older operations) presents a fundamentally different HVAC problem. Every kart on the track generates carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons at rates that without dedicated local source-capture exhaust will exceed the Safe Work Australia 30 ppm CO eight-hour TWA within minutes during sold-out operation.

Local source-capture exhaust at the grid

Plymovent-style local source-capture exhaust systems at every grid position and pit-lane bay capture the exhaust gas at the kart's tailpipe before it diffuses into the broader track volume. The capture hood follows the kart from grid to track-out via a moving or telescoping connection, then disconnects when the kart enters the live track. Capture flow rates run 1500 to 3500 L/s per kart for a four-stroke 200 cc engine, scaled to the engine displacement and number of karts in service.

Track general ventilation

Beyond the grid and pit-lane local extract, the track itself runs a separate general ventilation loop sized to manage the residual exhaust gas that escapes the grid capture, plus the patron-occupied spectator viewing zones along the track. Track general ventilation runs at 8 to 12 ACH for petrol operations versus 4 to 6 ACH for electric. Outdoor air at the upper end of the AS 1668.2 active-occupant range.

Pit-lane maintenance area

The kart maintenance bay where karts are repaired between sessions includes a small petrol storage area for fuel handling. This area runs as a Zone 2 hazardous area under AS 60079 for petrol vapour, with spark-resistant duct (or properly bonded stainless steel with conductive gasketing) inside the hazardous-area envelope. Workshop-grade exhaust ventilation with explosion-rated fan motors.

Spectator viewing HVAC

The spectator viewing zones along the track must remain below the 30 ppm CO WES at all times. Spectator viewing HVAC is sized as a separate zone with its own supply and return, isolated from the track airstream by physical separation (typically a glass viewing barrier) and by pressurisation (spectator zone held at positive pressure relative to the track).

Indoor laser tag HVAC — fog and ozone management

Indoor laser tag arenas combine theatrical fog, blacklight UV illumination, low-level theatrical lighting and corona-discharge fog generators in a contained play volume of typically 300 to 800 square metres. The HVAC profile is similar to a small dark ride but with more continuous fog operation.

Glycol fog particulate management

Laser tag uses glycol-based theatrical fog (propylene glycol atomised through a heated nozzle) at a higher continuous duty cycle than a dark ride. The fog provides the visible laser beam path and the atmospheric haze for theatrical effect. General extract sized to hold glycol fog particulate concentration below the approximately 50 to 60 mg per cubic metre industry guidance threshold at the patron breathing zone, plus floor-level return path to clear fog between rounds and between session change-overs.

Ozone extract at fog generators

Corona-discharge fog generators produce low-level ozone as a side product. Dedicated ozone extract at every fog generator location holds ozone below the Safe Work Australia 0.1 ppm WES. The extract is typically a small canopy hood over the fog generator with dedicated duct routed back to the laser tag air handler.

Blacklight UV and theatrical lighting

Laser tag arenas use blacklight UV illumination to fluoresce the patron vests and theatrical props. Blacklight UV at the operating wavelength range is non-ionising and presents no specific HVAC contaminant load. Heat from the lighting (typically 5 to 15 kW per arena) is removed by the general ventilation system.

Duct finish inside the play volume

Inside the laser tag play volume, duct surfaces are finished in matte black to avoid reflecting blacklight or theatrical lighting back into the play area. Exposed duct may also be wrapped in black acoustic absorbent material to reduce reflection of game-system audio.

Soft play and kids zone HVAC — over-ventilation by design

Soft play kids zones appear inside almost every modern FEC, family bar, large McDonald's, IKEA store, shopping centre and indoor amusement venue. The HVAC challenge is over-ventilation: children breathe at approximately twice the per-kilogram CO2 production rate of an adult, are active rather than seated, and present a higher per-body latent load.

Sizing approach

AS 1668.2 outdoor air sized at adult-seated rates is insufficient for any kids zone with active play. SBKJ recommends V_p at 10 L/s per child plus V_a at 0.6 to 0.9 L/s per square metre of play volume, with CO2 sensors driving DCV up to 1.5 times the AS 1668.2 baseline at peak occupancy. The sizing approach is conservative because under-ventilated kids zones manifest as documented complaints — child fatigue, headache reports from parents, staff health complaints — much faster than under-ventilated adult zones.

Floor-level returns

Soft play modules generate continuous dust load from foam cushioning, fabric covering, ball pit balls and the dirt and crumbs children deposit during play. Floor-level extract grilles at the base of soft play modules capture this dust load at source. Without floor-level returns, the dust accumulates in the play volume and on horizontal surfaces and presents both a hygiene problem and a respirable particulate problem.

HEPA terminal filtration

HEPA terminal filtration on the air handler return is now standard for ducted operators concerned about respiratory virus transmission in kids zones, particularly post-COVID. The HEPA stage adds 100 to 200 Pa to the air handler pressure drop and requires the supply fan to be sized accordingly.

Acoustic comfort

Soft play and kids zone acoustic targets are relaxed at NC-40 given the high ambient noise from the play activity itself. The dominant acoustic concern is sound transmission to adjacent quiet zones (parent observation area, adjacent bar or restaurant) which is handled by acoustic separation rather than HVAC criterion.

Bowling, arcade, VR and indoor mini-golf HVAC — clean controlled environments

The dry-occupancy FEC formats — bowling alleys, arcade lounges, VR lounges, indoor mini-golf — run on conventional assembly-grade HVAC with no special contaminant capture and modest activity-zone correction.

Bowling alley HVAC

Modern bowling alleys (Zone Bowling, AMF Bowling, Strike Bowling at Funlab sites) are essentially climate-controlled assembly buildings with a long narrow lane footprint. Bowlers are at 2 to 3 MET, modest activity, and the dominant HVAC concern is the bar-and-cafe service area as the primary latent load. AS 1668.2 outdoor air at standard assembly rates with active-occupant correction for the bowler zone, NC-30 to NC-35 acoustic, modest latent load management. The pin-setter back-of-house area runs at slightly higher ventilation rates to clear lane wax vapour from the lane maintenance process.

Arcade and VR lounge HVAC

Timezone, the various standalone arcade operations and VR-only lounges run one of the cleanest controlled environments in the FEC sector. Patrons are essentially stationary at machines, contaminant load is minimal, and the dominant HVAC concern is thermal comfort plus modest CO2 management at peak occupancy. NC-35 to NC-40 acoustic is acceptable given the high source noise from the arcade machines themselves. VR headsets create a small but real per-patron latent load from facial perspiration and the headsets require disinfection between uses, which is a hygiene operations issue rather than HVAC.

Indoor mini-golf HVAC

Holey Moley (Funlab Group), Strike Indoor Mini Golf and venue-specific operations combine a themed 9 or 18 hole mini-golf circuit with bar and lounge service. HVAC is conventional assembly-grade, with the dominant concerns being thermal comfort during peak occupancy and latent load management from bar service. The themed environment may include theatrical lighting and modest fog effects on individual holes — if the venue uses fog effects, the fog and ozone capture overlay from the laser tag and dark ride section applies on a smaller scale.

Animatronics, character costume and back-of-house HVAC

Back-of-house workshops and support areas at theme parks and themed attractions present specialised HVAC requirements that are easily missed in the headline mechanical engineering scope.

Animatronics workshop

Animatronic figure maintenance and repair workshops at major theme parks need humidity control (typically 40 to 60 percent RH year-round) to protect electronics, paint finishes and elastomer components. The workshop also generates light dust and solvent vapour from the maintenance work — modest local exhaust at workbenches and paint spray areas.

Character costume room

The character costume room at a theme park holds the walk-around costumes used by performers playing licensed characters (Bugs Bunny, Scooby-Doo, Shrek and the licensed character roster at Movie World and Dreamworld; LEGO figures at LEGOLAND Discovery Centre Melbourne). Costumes are heavy, often poorly ventilated for the performer inside, and the costume room runs as a recovery and changeover space between shifts. Performers in heavy costumes generate 200 to 400 W of dissipated body heat plus an enclosed-volume CO2 spike, and the costume room must hold thermal comfort across the shift change while running additional cooling and outdoor air for performer health.

Ride storage warehouse

Off-season storage for parade floats, removable themed elements and ride spare parts. Humidity control is the primary HVAC concern — uncontrolled humidity destroys paint finishes, electronics and elastomer parts over a single off-season. Conventional warehouse HVAC with mechanical dehumidification capability. Some ride storage applications run at lower temperature year-round to extend elastomer service life.

Theme park administration

Conventional office HVAC for the operational and administrative staff. Standard office occupancy applies — see our companion Commercial Office Tower HVAC Duct Guide for the related architecture.

Concession kitchen exhaust — the largest single HVAC scope at most parks

Food and beverage exhaust is the largest single HVAC scope at most theme park, FEC and indoor amusement venues by linear metre of installed duct and by capital cost.

Hood architecture

Commercial cooking equipment (charbroiler, deep fryer, range, oven, salamander, griddle, woodstone pizza oven) is captured under a Type 1 grease hood with the hood face at minimum 250 mm above the cooking surface (NFPA 96 / AS 1668.2 Section 5). The hood is supplied by makeup air at the perimeter to balance the exhaust extraction without disturbing the cooking surface, and connected to the rooftop fan via 304L stainless steel ductwork with fully welded liquid-tight construction.

Duct construction

Kitchen exhaust duct is 304L stainless steel, 1.2 mm minimum thickness, fully welded liquid-tight construction. The duct cannot be sealed with mechanical gaskets — grease residue from the cooking process accumulates inside the duct over service life and any non-welded joint will leak grease. Welded TDF flanges are used where flange connections are unavoidable; longitudinal seams are welded continuously. SBKJ fabricates 304L on the SBAL-III auto duct line and the SBSF-1525 shear-fold brake; welded joints are completed on the SBPC1500 plasma cutting line with welding fixtures.

Fire suppression integration

Type 1 hoods include integrated fire suppression — typically a wet chemical suppression system (Ansul R-102, Amerex KP) plumbed through the hood to nozzles aimed at each cooking surface position. The fire suppression system trips on flame detection at the hood and shuts down the gas or electric supply to the cooking surface, releases suppressant into the hood and ductwork, and operates the exhaust fan at the configured emergency setting. The HVAC duct system must accommodate the suppression piping and the post-discharge cleanup access.

Rooftop fan and grease management

The rooftop kitchen exhaust fan handles the cooking-grease-loaded airstream and discharges above the roof line. Grease residue accumulates in the fan housing and on the duct interior, and a grease management programme (per AS 1851 maintenance schedule and the operator's hygiene programme) must clean the duct interior at scheduled intervals — typically 3 to 12 months depending on cooking volume.

Acoustic specification — assembly-grade not auditorium-grade

Theme park, FEC and indoor amusement HVAC operates at assembly-grade acoustic criteria — NC-30 to NC-40 across the active spaces — which is significantly less demanding than cinema (NC-25), theatre (NC-20) or concert hall (NC-15) HVAC. The source noise from the amusement activity itself (trampolines, climbing wall holds, bowling pins, arcade machines, music systems, ride mechanics) is high, and the HVAC contribution to the acoustic envelope is correspondingly relaxed.

NC criteria by venue type

Theme park indoor pavilion: NC-30 to NC-35. Dark ride show building: NC-25 to NC-30 (theatrical attention required). Water ride splash zone: NC-35 to NC-40 (high source noise from water effects). Indoor pool slide complex: NC-35 to NC-40. Trampoline park jump arena: NC-35 to NC-40. Indoor climbing volume: NC-30 to NC-35. Indoor go-kart track: NC-40 (high source noise from kart operation). Indoor laser tag arena: NC-30 to NC-35. Bowling alley: NC-30 to NC-35. Arcade and VR lounge: NC-35 to NC-40. Indoor mini-golf: NC-30 to NC-35. Soft play and kids zone: NC-40 (relaxed given activity noise). Concession food court: NC-35 to NC-40.

Boundary noise — the dominant acoustic constraint

Theme park and FEC sites near residential interfaces (Luna Park Melbourne at St Kilda Beach, Luna Park Sydney at Milsons Point, urban FEC sites in mixed-use precincts) routinely have operating-hour acoustic compliance conditions at the residential boundary. AS 3580 boundary noise standards apply, and rooftop exhaust fan selection, in-duct silencer specification and discharge orientation are driven by the boundary compliance requirement rather than the internal NC criterion.

In-duct silencers

Rooftop fan discharges, kitchen exhaust discharges and any other emission to the property boundary are fitted with in-duct silencers sized for the boundary compliance target. Silencer length 0.6 to 1.5 m, insertion loss 15 to 25 dB at 250 Hz, with the silencer located as close to the fan discharge as practical to attenuate fan noise before it propagates through any downstream duct or grille.

SBKJ machine selection for theme park, FEC and indoor amusement projects

SBKJ machinery selection for theme park, FEC and indoor amusement HVAC scope is driven by the duct material specification, the production volume per project and the variety of duct sizes required.

SBAL-V auto duct line — general HVAC galvanised duct

The SBAL-V auto duct line is the standard SBKJ recommendation for general HVAC galvanised duct fabrication across theme park, FEC and indoor amusement projects. SBAL-V runs at 16 m/min, handles material thickness 0.5 to 1.5 mm and width to 1500 mm, with installed power 87 kW. A single SBAL-V line fabricates the rectangular galvanised duct for trampoline park, climbing gym, bowling alley, arcade, soft play, indoor go-kart electric, indoor laser tag, concession back-of-house, food court general supply and the bulk of indoor amusement HVAC scope. Throughput: a typical 2500 to 4000 square metre FEC fitout duct package fabricates in 1 to 2 weeks on a single SBAL-V line.

SBAL-III auto duct line — stainless steel splash zone duct

The SBAL-III auto duct line (14 m/min, 15.7 kW) is the SBKJ recommendation for 316L stainless steel duct fabrication for water ride splash zones, indoor pool slide complexes and chloramine-loaded environments. SBAL-III handles 316L stainless steel up to 1.5 mm and the production rate accommodates the typically smaller volumes of stainless steel duct per project compared with the bulk galvanised scope.

SBAL-II auto duct line — light-duty galvanised

The SBAL-II auto duct line (18 m/min, 5.5 kW) handles light-duty galvanised duct fabrication for the smaller projects and the regional FEC fitouts where the volume does not justify SBAL-V capacity. SBAL-II is typically the SBKJ recommendation for the smaller franchise operations (single-site trampoline parks, climbing gyms, regional FEC openings) where the duct package volume is below the SBAL-V capacity threshold.

SBTF-1500C / SBTF-1602 / SBTF-2020 spiral tubeformer

The SBTF series spiral tubeformers fabricate round galvanised spiral duct in diameters from 80 mm to 2000 mm depending on the specific machine selection. The SBTF-1602 is the SBKJ recommendation for the large-volume entertainment hall return and over-ride duct in indoor theme parks where round duct is preferred for cleaning access, aesthetic exposure or routing through architectural exposed-services areas. Indoor theme park pavilion return duct, FEC concourse return duct and Sky Zone or Bounce jump arena over-supply duct are common applications.

SBEM-1250 elbow machine

The SBEM-1250 elbow machine fabricates round duct elbows and fittings for the spiral duct package. Theme park indoor pavilion and indoor amusement venue spiral duct routing involves significant elbow and fitting count, and the SBEM-1250 is the throughput partner to the SBTF spiral tubeformer for fitting fabrication.

SBSF-1525 shear-fold brake — stainless steel manual sections

The SBSF-1525 shear-fold brake (2.5 kW) handles the manual stainless steel duct sections for splash zone, indoor pool and kitchen exhaust applications where transitions, custom fittings and field-fabricated sections are needed. The brake supplements the auto duct line for the lower-volume custom work.

SBFB-1500 folding brake

The SBFB-1500 folding brake (7.5 kW, 1.20 m/min) handles the heavier-gauge galvanised and stainless steel folding work for fittings, transitions and custom sections.

SBHF horizontal folder

The SBHF horizontal folder handles the longer custom sections where the throat depth of the shear-fold brake or folding brake is insufficient. Theme park and FEC custom sections (architectural exposed duct, themed shroud fabrications) routinely require horizontal folding capacity.

SBPC1500 plasma cutter

The SBPC1500 plasma cutter handles the welded kitchen exhaust sections, the welded smoke control sections and the welded 316L splash zone sections that require precision cutting before welding. The plasma cutter is paired with welding fixtures for the welded joint completion.

SBLR-600 / SBLR-600A locked-seam roller

The SBLR-600 and SBLR-600A (7.6 m/min) handle the small-diameter round duct fabrication for the back-of-house spiral duct branches and the smaller-bore stainless steel splash zone duct.

Selection summary by venue

For a trampoline park, climbing gym, bowling alley, arcade, soft play, indoor laser tag, electric go-kart track or FEC fitout: SBAL-V plus SBTF-1602 plus SBEM-1250 plus SBFB-1500 covers the duct package. For an indoor pool slide complex, water ride splash zone or FlowRider installation: add SBAL-III plus SBSF-1525 for the 316L stainless steel scope. For a major theme park project with food and beverage scope: add SBSF-1525 and SBPC1500 for the 304L stainless steel kitchen exhaust scope. For a petrol go-kart track: add spark-resistant fabrication on the SBSF-1525 with conductive gasketing on the hazardous-area duct sections.

Project programme and lead time

Theme park, FEC and indoor amusement HVAC programmes vary significantly by project size, but the following typical durations apply.

FEC and trampoline park fitout

A typical 2500 to 4000 square metre FEC, trampoline park or indoor climbing gym fitout runs 12 to 18 weeks of HVAC programme from issued-for-construction drawings to commissioning. Duct fabrication 2 to 3 weeks, installation 6 to 8 weeks phased with trampoline rigging, climbing wall structural install and tenancy fitout, and testing balancing and AS 1668.4 acceptance testing 2 to 3 weeks.

Indoor theme park pavilion

A new-build indoor theme park pavilion or major Merlin attraction (LEGOLAND Discovery Centre, Sea Life expansion) runs 24 to 40 weeks of HVAC scope coordinated with ride installation, water systems, structural steel and tenancy fitout. The programme is dominated by ride installation rather than HVAC.

Major outdoor theme park refurbishment

A major refurbishment of an outdoor theme park area — new themed land, ride replacement, food and beverage redevelopment — runs 12 to 24 months end-to-end with HVAC scope spread across the programme. The HVAC scope at any single park covers multiple separate buildings each on their own sub-programme.

Water ride splash zone retrofit

A 316L stainless steel splash zone HVAC retrofit (replacing corroded galvanised duct in an existing water ride or indoor pool slide complex) runs 8 to 16 weeks depending on the duct package volume. The dominant constraint is operating-hour access to the splash zone — the retrofit is typically scheduled during the seasonal closure period or during a planned ride closure.

Australian project context — Box Hill North VIC and the export market

SBKJ Group operates from Box Hill North in Victoria, Australia, with the Australian-side engineering team supporting theme park, amusement, FEC, trampoline park and indoor climbing projects across Australia, New Zealand and the wider Asia-Pacific export market. The Australian engineering office provides English-language project specification support, FAT scheduling and post-installation engineering consultation for projects in the Australian time zone, and coordinates closely with our acoustic, fire engineering and food and beverage consulting partners.

Buyers operating in Australia work with SBKJ engineers in Box Hill North; export buyers in New Zealand, Southeast Asia, the Pacific and the Middle East are supported through the same office with project-specific time zone coverage. Contact us for a project-specific quote or a technical conversation with a senior engineer on a theme park, FEC, trampoline park or indoor climbing project.

Frequently asked questions

What standards apply to theme park and amusement park HVAC in Australia?

Indoor theme park and amusement venues are NCC Class 9b assembly buildings and trigger AS 1668.2 mechanical ventilation, AS 1668.1 fire and smoke control, AS 4254 ductwork construction, AS 1530.4 fire-rated penetrations, AS 3533.1 / 3533.3 / 3533.4 amusement rides and devices, AS 4426 dark ride compliance, AS 4818 water rides and slides, AS 2118 sprinkler, AS 1851 maintenance and AS 1428 DDA accessibility. ASHRAE Applications Chapter 4 and ASHRAE 62.1 are routinely cross-referenced. Safe Work Australia WES applies for ozone (0.1 ppm laser tag and dark ride fog), CO (30 ppm petrol kart), glycol fog (approximately 50 to 60 mg per cubic metre) and latex foam dust.

How is trampoline park HVAC sized for high active-occupant CO2?

Trampoline park jumpers work at 6 to 10 MET — three to five times sedentary. Outdoor air is sized at AS 1668.2 V_p of 10 L/s per person plus V_a of 1 L/s per square metre, with a 50 to 80 percent over-ventilation margin compared with a sedentary occupancy. Peak CO2 in a packed Sky Zone or Bounce arena without sized outdoor air can climb past 2500 ppm within thirty minutes. CO2 demand-controlled ventilation is the baseline for any modern trampoline park.

What duct materials are used in water ride splash zones and indoor slide complexes?

316L stainless steel is the only material that survives the chloramine plus humidity attack of a water ride splash zone or indoor pool slide complex (Wet'n'Wild Gold Coast indoor sections, WhiteWater World pavilions, public aquatic slide complexes). Galvanised corrodes within 2 to 5 years, 304L pits within 5 to 10, 316L gives 20-plus. Supply air is dehumidified to 50 to 60 percent RH per AS 4818 before delivery to the splash zone.

How is dark ride fog and ozone managed under AS 4426?

Dark rides generate glycol-based theatrical fog plus low-level ozone from corona-discharge fog generators. AS 4426 sets the dark ride compliance including emergency smoke clearance. AS 1668.2 sets the operator-area outdoor air. Dedicated scene-level exhaust captures fog drift, ozone extract holds operator exposure below the Safe Work Australia 0.1 ppm WES, and emergency smoke clearance switches the volume to full exhaust in under three minutes for evacuation.

What HVAC is needed for indoor go-kart tracks — electric versus petrol?

Electric kart tracks need conventional assembly-grade ventilation. Petrol kart tracks require dedicated local source-capture exhaust at every grid and pit-lane position sized at 1500 to 3500 L/s per kart for a four-stroke 200 cc engine, plus spark-resistant duct in hazardous-area zones. Compliance target is the Safe Work Australia 30 ppm CO WES.

How is chalk dust managed in indoor climbing and bouldering gyms?

Magnesium carbonate chalk dust accumulates at milligram-per-cubic-metre concentrations during peak climbing sessions. BlocHaus, 9Degrees, Latitude, Boulder Co. and similar operations install dedicated high-flow general ventilation with HEPA H13 or H14 final filtration on the return side, supply diffusers driving dust downward, floor-level extract grilles at the base of bouldering walls, and 6 to 10 ACH air change versus 4 to 6 for general assembly.

What duct material does SBKJ recommend for theme park and FEC HVAC?

Galvanised steel 0.6 to 1.5 mm on SBAL-V for general HVAC, return and dry-zone exhaust covering trampoline park, climbing, bowling, arcade, VR, soft play, food court back-of-house. 316L stainless steel on SBAL-III plus SBSF-1525 for water ride splash zones, indoor pool slide complexes and chloramine environments. Spark-resistant aluminium or bonded stainless with conductive gasketing for petrol kart hazardous-area zones. SBTF-1602 spiral tubeformer for large-volume entertainment hall return.

What is the typical HVAC lead time for a new FEC or trampoline park fitout?

A typical 2500 to 4000 square metre FEC, trampoline park or indoor climbing gym fitout runs 12 to 18 weeks of HVAC programme. Duct fabrication 2 to 3 weeks, installation 6 to 8 weeks phased with trampoline rigging or climbing wall structural install, testing balancing and AS 1668.4 acceptance 2 to 3 weeks. SBKJ machinery fabricates a full FEC duct package in a single 1 to 2 week run on SBAL-V.

What changed in post-COVID FEC and indoor amusement HVAC design?

Outdoor air rates moved up to 30 to 50 percent above the AS 1668.2 minimum across active-occupancy spaces. MERV-13 or higher filtration is standard with HEPA terminal filtration on climbing volume returns and soft play kids zones. CO2-driven DCV is mandatory. UV-C in-duct disinfection has been retrofitted across many sites. Indoor surfing FlowRider installations have moved to dedicated dehumidification rather than outdoor air dilution.

How is soft play and kids zone HVAC sized?

Children breathe approximately twice the per-kilogram CO2 production of an adult, are active rather than seated, and present higher latent load. AS 1668.2 sedentary rates are inadequate. SBKJ recommends V_p at 10 L/s per child plus V_a at 0.6 to 0.9 L/s per square metre with CO2 DCV up to 1.5 times the baseline at peak. Floor-level returns for soft play module dust capture and HEPA terminal filtration on the air handler return.

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